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Philip Zimbardo

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Philip Zimbardo
Zimbardo in 2019
Born
Philip George Zimbardo

(1933-03-23)March 23, 1933
New York City, U.S.
DiedOctober 14, 2024(2024-10-14) (aged 91)
San Francisco, California, U.S.
EducationBrooklyn College (BA)
Yale University (MS, PhD)
Known forStanford prison experiment
Abu Ghraib prison analysis
time perspective therapy
social intensity syndrome
Notable workThe Lucifer Effect (2007)
The Time Paradox
Spouse(s)
​
​
(m. 1957; div. 1971)​

​
(m. 1972)​
Websitewww.philipzimbardo.com
Signature

Philip George Zimbardo (/zɪmˈbɑːrdoʊ/; March 23, 1933 – October 14, 2024) was an American psychologist and a professor at Stanford University.[1] He became known for his 1971 Stanford prison experiment, which was later criticized severely for both ethical and scientific reasons. He authored various introductory psychology textbooks for college students, and other notable works, including The Lucifer Effect, The Time Paradox, and The Time Cure. He was also the initiator and president of the Heroic Imagination Project.

Early life and education

Zimbardo was born in New York City on March 23, 1933, to a family of Italian immigrants from Cammarata in Sicily. Early in life he experienced discrimination and prejudice, growing up poor on welfare in the South Bronx,[2] and being Italian. Zimbardo said these experiences early in life began his curiosity about people's behavior, and later influenced his research in school.[3]

Maslach and Zimbardo in 1972.

He survived an early childhood illness[3] and the experience of a long stay at a hospital for children with contagious diseases, where he learned to read. His formal education began in New York Public School 52 and he graduated from James Monroe High School. He was the first member of his family to pursue a college degree.[4]

In 1954, Zimbardo completed his B.A. with a triple major in Psychology, Sociology, and Anthropology from Brooklyn College, where he graduated summa cum laude. He completed his M.S. (1955) and Ph.D. (1959) in psychology from Yale University, where Neal E. Miller was his advisor.[5] While at Yale, he married fellow graduate student Rose Abdelnour; they had a son in 1962 and divorced in 1971.[6][7]

He taught at Yale from 1959 to 1960. From 1960 to 1967, he was a professor of psychology at New York University College of Arts & Science. From 1967 to 1968, he taught at Columbia University. He joined the faculty at Stanford University in California in 1968 and taught for 50 years there.[8] Following retirement in 2003, he continued to lecture at Stanford and taught at Palo Alto University (former Pacific Graduate School of Psychology) and the Naval Postgraduate School (NPS) in Monterey.[9]

In 1972 he married Christina Maslach, who received her doctorate in psychology at Stanford University in 1971 and had played a role in concluding the Stanford Prison Experiment.[10] They had two children and were married for 52 years until his death.

Stanford prison study

Main article: Stanford prison experiment

Background

In 1971, Zimbardo accepted a tenured position as professor of psychology at Stanford University. With a government grant from the U.S. Office of Naval Research, he performed the Stanford prison experiment in which 24 male college students were selected (from an applicant pool of 75). After a mental health screening, the remaining men were assigned randomly to be "prisoners" or "guards" in a mock prison located in the basement of the psychology building at Stanford.[11] Prisoners were confined to a 6 by 9 feet (1.8 m × 2.7 m) cell with black steel-barred doors. The only furniture in each cell was a cot. Solitary confinement was a small unlit closet. Zimbardo's goal for the Stanford Prison study was to assess the psychological effect on a (randomly assigned) student of becoming a prisoner or prison guard.[12] A 1997 article from the Stanford News Service described the experiment's goals in more detail:

Zimbardo's primary reason for conducting the experiment was to focus on the power of roles, rules, symbols, group identity and situational validation of behavior that generally would repulse ordinary individuals. "I had been conducting research for some years on deindividuation, vandalism and dehumanization that illustrated the ease with which ordinary people could be led to engage in anti-social acts by putting them in situations where they felt anonymous, or they could perceive of others in ways that made them less than human, as enemies or objects," Zimbardo told the Toronto symposium in the summer of 1996.[13]

Experiment

Zimbardo himself participated with the study, playing the role of "prison superintendent" who could mediate disputes between guards and prisoners. He instructed guards to find ways to dominate the prisoners, not with physical violence, but with other tactics, verging on torture, such as sleep deprivation and punishment with solitary confinement. Later in the experiment, as some guards became more aggressive, taking away prisoners' cots (so that they had to sleep on the floor), and forcing them to use buckets kept in their cells as toilets, and then refusing permission to empty the buckets, neither the other guards nor Zimbardo himself intervened. Knowing that their actions were observed but not rebuked, guards considered that they had implicit approval for such actions.[14]

In later interviews, several guards told interviewers that they knew what Zimbardo wanted to have happen, and they did their best to make that happen.[15] Less than two full days into the study, one inmate pretended to suffer from depression, uncontrolled rage and other mental dysfunctions. The prisoner was eventually released after screaming and acting in an unstable manner in front of the other inmates. He revealed later that he faked this "breakdown" to get out of the study early. This prisoner was replaced with one of the alternates.[11]

Results

By the end of the study, the guards had won complete control over all of their prisoners and were using their authority to its greatest extent. One prisoner had even gone as far as to begin a hunger strike. When he refused to eat, the guards put him into solitary confinement for three hours (even though their own rules stated the limit that a prisoner could be in solitary confinement was only one hour). Instead of the other prisoners considering this inmate as a hero and following along in his strike, they chanted together that he was a bad prisoner and a troublemaker. Prisoners and guards had adapted rapidly to their roles, doing more[clarification needed] than had been predicted and resulting in dangerous and potentially psychologically damaging situations. Zimbardo himself started to give in to the roles of the situation. He had to be shown the reality of the study by Christina Maslach, his girlfriend and future wife, who had just received her doctorate in psychology.[16] Zimbardo stated that the message from the study is that "situations can have a more powerful influence over our behaviour than most people appreciate, and few people recognize [that]."[17]

At the end of the study, after all the prisoners had been released, everyone was brought back into the same room for evaluation and to be able to get their feelings out in the open towards one another. Ethical concerns about the study often compare it to the Milgram experiment, which was performed in 1961 at Yale University by Stanley Milgram, Zimbardo's former high school friend.[18] [10]

More recently, Thibault Le Texier of the University of Nice has examined the archives of the experiment, including videos, recordings, and Zimbardo's handwritten notes, and argued that "The guards knew what results the experiment was supposed to produce ... Far from reacting spontaneously to this pathogenic social environment, the guards were given clear instructions for how to create it ... The experimenters intervened directly in the experiment, either to give precise instructions, to recall the purposes of the experiment, or to set a general direction ... In order to get their full participation, Zimbardo intended to make the guards believe that they were his research assistants."[19] Since his original publication in French,[20] Le Texier's accusations have been examined by science communicators in the United States.[21] In his book Humankind – a hopeful history (2020)[22][23] historian Rutger Bregman discusses charges that the whole experiment was faked and fraudulent; Bregman argued this experiment is often used as an example to show that people succumb easily to evil behavior, but Zimbardo was less than candid about the fact that he told the guards to act the way they did. More recently, an American Psychological Association (APA) psychology article reviewed this work in detail and concluded that Zimbardo encouraged the guards to act the way they did, so rather than this behavior appearing on its own, it was generated by Zimbardo.[24]

Testimony at Trial of Abu Ghraib Prison Guards

Further information: Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse

Zimbardo discussed the similarities between the behavior of the participants in the Stanford prison experiment, and the prisoner abuse at Abu Ghraib. He did not accept the claim of Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Myers that the events were due to a few rogue soldiers and that it did not represent the military. Instead he considered the situation that the soldiers were in and considered the possibility that this situation might have induced the behavior that they displayed. He began with the assumption that the abusers were not "bad apples" and were in a situation like that of the Stanford prison study, where physically and psychologically healthy people were behaving sadistically and brutalizing prisoners.[17] Zimbardo became absorbed in trying to understand who these people were, asking the question "are they inexplicable, can we not understand them". This caused him to write the book The Lucifer Effect.[17]

The Lucifer Effect

Main article: The Lucifer Effect

The Lucifer Effect was written in response to his findings in the Stanford Prison Experiment. Zimbardo believed that personality characteristics could play a role in how violent or submissive actions are manifested. In the book, Zimbardo says that humans cannot be defined as good or evil because we have the ability to act as both especially according to the situation. Examples include the events that occurred at the Abu Ghraib Detention Center, in which the defense team—including Gary Myers—argued that it was not the prison guards and interrogators that were at fault for the physical and mental abuse of detainees but the George W. Bush administration policies themselves.[25] According to Zimbardo, "Good people can be induced, seduced, and initiated into behaving in evil ways. They can also be led to act in irrational, stupid, self-destructive, antisocial, and mindless ways when they are immersed in 'total situations' that impact human nature in ways that challenge our sense of the stability and consistency of individual personality, of character, and of morality." In The Journal of the American Medical Association,[26] there are seven social processes that grease "the slippery slope of evil":[27]

  • Mindlessly taking the first small step
  • Dehumanization of others
  • De-individuation of self (anonymity)
  • Diffusion of personal responsibility
  • Blind obedience to authority
  • Uncritical conformity to group norms
  • Passive tolerance of evil through inaction or indifference

Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory

In 2008, Zimbardo published his work with John Boyd about the Time Perspective Theory and the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) in The Time Paradox: The New Psychology of Time That Will Change Your Life. In 2009, he met Richard Sword and started collaborating to convert the Time Perspective Theory into a clinical therapy, beginning a four-year long pilot study and establishing time perspective therapy.[28] In 2009, Zimbardo did his Ted Talk "The Psychology of Time" about the Time Perspective Theory. According to this Ted Talk, there are six kinds of different Time Perspectives which are Past Positive TP (Time Perspective), Past Negative TP, Present Hedonism TP, Present Fatalism TP, Future Life Goal-Oriented TP and Future Transcendental TP.[29] In 2012, Zimbardo, Richard Sword, and his wife Rosemary authored a book named The Time Cure.[30] Time Perspective therapy bears similarities to Pause Button Therapy, developed by psychotherapist Martin Shirran, whom Zimbardo corresponded with and met at the first International Time Perspective Conference at the University of Coimbra, Portugal. Zimbardo wrote the foreword to the second edition of Shirran's book on the subject.[31]

Heroic Imagination Project

Main article: Heroic Imagination Project

Zimbardo was the founder and director of the Heroic Imagination Project (HIP), a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting heroism in everyday life.[32][1] Since 2010, HIP has been focused on educational programs across the United States and globally to teach people how to resist behaviors such as bullying, bystanding, and negative conformity and encourage positive social action.[33] The concept of the "banality of heroism," introduced by Dr. Zimbardo and Dr. Zeno Franco in 2006, serves as a guiding principle for the Heroic Imagination Project, emphasizing the belief that fostering a culture of heroism can empower individuals to act positively and make impactful changes in their communities.[34] Zimbardo published an article contrasting heroism and altruism in 2011 with Zeno Franco and Kathy Blau in the Review of General Psychology.[35]

Social Intensity Syndrome (SIS)

In 2008, Zimbardo began working with Sarah Brunskill and Anthony Ferreras on a new theory termed Social Intensity Syndrome (SIS). SIS is a new term invented to describe and normalize the effects military culture has on the socialization of both active soldiers and veterans. Zimbardo and Brunskill presented the new theory and a preliminary factor analysis of it accompanying survey at the Western Psychological Association in 2013.[36] Brunskill finished the data collection in December 2013. Through an exploratory component factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, internal consistency, and validity tests demonstrated that SIS was a reliable and valid construct of measuring military socialization.[37]

Other endeavors

After the prison experiment, Zimbardo decided to search for ways he could use psychology to help people; this resulted in the founding of The Shyness Clinic in Menlo Park, California, which treats shy behavior in adults and children. Zimbardo's research on shyness resulted in several bestselling books on the topic. Other subjects he has researched include mind control and cultic behavior.[38]

Zimbardo is the co-author of an introductory psychology textbook entitled Psychology And Life, which is used for many American undergraduate psychology courses. He also hosted a PBS television series titled Discovering Psychology which is used in many college telecourses.[39]

In 2004, Zimbardo testified for the defense during the court martial of Sgt. Ivan "Chip" Frederick, a guard at Abu Ghraib prison. He argued that Frederick's sentence should be lessened due to mitigating circumstances, explaining that few individuals can resist the powerful situational pressures of a prison, particularly without proper training and supervision. The judge apparently disregarded Zimbardo's testimony, and gave Frederick the maximum 8-year sentence. Zimbardo drew on the knowledge he gained from his participation in the Frederick case to write a new book entitled The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil, about the connections between Abu Ghraib and the prison experiments.[40]

Zimbardo's writing appeared in Greater Good Magazine, published by the Greater Good Science Center of the University of California, Berkeley. Zimbardo's contributions include the interpretation of scientific research into the roots of compassion, altruism, and peaceful human relationships. His last article with Greater Good, "The Banality of Heroism", examined how ordinary people can become everyday heroes.[41] In February 2010, Zimbardo was a guest presenter at the Science of a Meaningful Life seminar: Goodness, Evil, and Everyday Heroism, along with Greater Good Science Center Executive Director Dacher Keltner.[42]

Zimbardo, who retired officially in 2003, gave his final lecture, "Exploring Human Nature", on March 7, 2007, on the Stanford campus, celebrating his 50th year of teaching psychology. David Spiegel, professor of psychiatry at the Stanford University School of Medicine, termed Zimbardo "a legendary teacher", saying that "he has changed the way we think about social influences".[43]

Zimbardo made appearances on American television, such as The Daily Show with Jon Stewart on March 29, 2007,[44] The Colbert Report on February 11, 2008,[45] and Dr. Phil on October 25, 2010.[46]

Zimbardo served as advisor to the anti-bullying organization Bystander Revolution and appeared in the organization's videos to explain the bystander effect[47] and discuss the evil of inaction.[48]

Zimbardo speaking in Poland, 2009

From 2003 on, Zimbardo was active in charitable and economic work in rural Sicily through the Zimbardo-Luczo Fund with Steve Luczo and the local director Pasquale Marino [it], which provides scholarships for academically gifted students from Corleone and Cammarata.[49]

In 2015, Zimbardo co-authored a book, Man (Dis)connected: How Technology Has Sabotaged What It Means To Be Male, which collected research to support a thesis that males are increasingly disconnected from society. He argued that a lack of two-parent households and female-oriented schooling have made it more attractive to live virtually, risking video game addiction or pornography addiction.[50]

Death

Zimbardo died at home in San Francisco on October 14, 2024, at the age of 91.[51][52] His wife, Christina Maslach, and their children were by his side when he died.[52]

Recognition

In 2012, Zimbardo received the American Psychological Foundation Gold Medal for Lifetime Achievement in the Science of Psychology.[53] In 2011, he received an honorary doctorate degree from SWPS University in Warsaw.[54] In 2003, Zimbardo and University of Rome La Sapienza scholars Gian Vittorio Caprara and Claudio Barbaranelli were awarded the sarcastic Ig Nobel Prize for Psychology[55] for their report "Politicians' Uniquely Simple Personalities".[56]

Works

  • Influencing attitudes and changing behavior: a basic introduction to relevant methodology, theory, and applications. Topics in social psychology (Revised printing ed.). Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. 1970. ISBN 978-0-201-08790-1.
  • The Cognitive Control of Motivation: The Consequences of Choice and Dissonance. Scott, Foresman. 1969. ISBN 978-2-00-100017-3.
  • Stanford Prison Experiment: A Simulation Study of the Psychology of Imprisonment. Philip G. Zimbardo, Incorporated. 1972.
  • Influencing attitudes and changing behavior: a basic introduction to relevant methodology, theory, and applications. Topics in social psychology (Revised printing ed.). Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. 1970. ISBN 978-0-201-08790-1.
  • Canvassing for Peace: A Manual for Volunteers. Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues. 1970.
  • Influencing attitudes and changing behavior: an introduction to method, theory, and applications of social control and personal power. Topics in social psychology (2d ed.). Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co. 1977. ISBN 978-0-201-08796-3.
  • Dempsey, David; Zimbardo, Philip G. (1978). Psychology & you (1st ed.). Glenview, Ill: Scott, Foresman. ISBN 978-0-673-15086-8.
  • Shyness: what it is, what to do about it. Cambridge, Mass: Perseus Books. 1989. ISBN 978-0-201-55018-4.
  • The psychology of attitude change and social influence. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. 1991. ISBN 978-0-87722-852-3.
  • Psychology (3rd ed.). Boston, u.a: Allyn and Bacon. 2000. ISBN 978-0-321-03432-8.
  • The shy child: a parent's guide to preventing and overcoming shyness from infancy to adulthood. Cambridge, Mass: Malor Books. 1999. ISBN 978-1-883536-21-3.
  • Psychology: core concepts (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon. 2006. ISBN 978-0-205-42428-3.
  • Psychology and life (17th ed.). Boston: Pearson/Allen and Bacon. 2004. ISBN 978-0-205-41799-5.
  • The lucifer effect: understanding how good people turn evil (1. ed.). New York, NY: Random House. 2007. ISBN 978-1-4000-6411-3.
  • The time paradox: the new psychology of time that will change your life (1st Free press hardcover ed.). New York: Free Press. 2008. ISBN 978-1-4165-4198-1. OCLC 191024075.
  • Levine, Robert; Rodrigues, Aroldo; Zelezny, Lynnette C., eds. (2008). "The Journey from the Bronx to Stanford to Abu Ghraib". Journeys in social psychology: looking back to inspire the future. New York: Psychology Press. pp. 85–104. ISBN 978-0-8058-6134-1. OCLC 192080462.
  • Cianciabella, Salvatore (2014). Siamo uomini e caporali: psicologia della disobbedienza. Milano: Angeli. ISBN 978-88-204-9248-9.
  • Maschi in difficoltà : perché il digitale crea sempre più problemi alla nuova generazione e come aiutarla. F. Angeli. 2017. ISBN 978-88-917-4406-7. OCLC 1006524191.
  • Man (dis)connected: how technology has sabotaged what it means to be male (First published ed.). London Sydney Auckland Johannesburg: Rider. 2015. ISBN 978-1-84604-484-7.
  • Man, interrupted: why young men are struggling & what we can do about it. Newburyport, MA: Conari Press. 2016. ISBN 978-1-57324-689-7.

See also

References

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  4. ^ "Philip Zimbardo Obituary (1933–2024) – Legacy Remembers". Legacy.com. Retrieved October 19, 2024.
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  14. ^ Konnikova, Konnikova (June 12, 2015). "The Real Lesson of the Stanford Prison Experiment". New Yorker. Retrieved July 12, 2018. Occasionally, disputes between prisoner and guards got out of hand, violating an explicit injunction against physical force that both prisoners and guards had read prior to enrolling in the study. When the "superintendent" and "warden" overlooked these incidents, the message to the guards was clear: all is well; keep going as you are. The participants knew that an audience was watching, and so a lack of feedback could be read as tacit approval. And the sense of being watched may also have encouraged them to perform.
  15. ^ Ratnasar, Romesh (2011). "The Menace Within". Stanford Alumni Magazine. Retrieved July 12, 2018. I felt that throughout the experiment, he knew what he wanted and then tried to shape the experiment—by how it was constructed, and how it played out—to fit the conclusion that he had already worked out. He wanted to be able to say that college students, people from middle-class backgrounds—people will turn on each other just because they're given a role and given power.
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  22. ^ Bregman, Rutger (2020). Humankind – a hopeful history (Illustrated ed.). Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 9780316418539.
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  25. ^ "Panel blames Bush officials for detainee abuse". msnbc.com. December 11, 2008. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016. Retrieved January 7, 2016.
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  28. ^ Sword, Richard M.; Sword, Rosemary K.M.; Brunskill, Sarah R.; Zimbardo, Philip G. (2013). "Time Perspective Therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD". Journal of Loss and Trauma. 19 (3): 197–201. doi:10.1080/15325024.2013.763632. S2CID 54843165.
  29. ^ Zimbardo, Philip (June 22, 2009). "The psychology of time". www.ted.com. Archived from the original on May 4, 2016. Retrieved April 21, 2016.
  30. ^ Zimbardo, Philip G.; Sword, Richard M.; Sword, Rosemary K.M. (2012). The Time Cure: Overcoming PTSD with the New Psychology of Time Perspective Therapy. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. ISBN 978-1-118205679.
  31. ^ Shirran, Martin (2012). Pause Button Therapy (2nd ed.). Hay House. ISBN 978-1781800485.
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  35. ^ Franco, Zeno; Blau, Kathy; Zimbardo, Philip (June 2011). "Heroism: A Conceptual Analysis and Differentiation Between Heroic Action and Altruism". Review of General Psychology. 15 (2): 99–113. doi:10.1037/a0022672 – via Research.net.
  36. ^ Brunskill, Sarah; Zimbardo, Philip (April 2013). "Social intensity syndrome phenomenon theory: Looking at the military as a sub culture". Western Psychological Association, Reno, NV. Archived from the original on April 3, 2015.
  37. ^ Zimbardo, Philip G.; Ferreras, Anthony; Brunskill, Sarah R. (2015). "Social Intensity Syndrome: The Development and Validation of the Social Intensity Syndrome Scale". Journal of Personality and Individual Difference. 73: 17–23. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.09.014.
  38. ^ What messages are behind today's cults? Archived May 2, 1998, at the Wayback Machine, APA Monitor, May 1997
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  40. ^ James Bone Rome. "The Times". Archived from the original on August 9, 2011. Retrieved November 7, 2011.
  41. ^ Franco, Z. & Zimbardo, P. (2006–2007) The banality of heroism Archived June 18, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. Greater Good, 3 (2), 30–35
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  50. ^ "Psychologist Philip Zimbardo: 'Boys risk become addicted to porn, video games and Ritalin'". TheGuardian.com. May 9, 2015. Retrieved October 29, 2018.
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  52. ^ a b "The Time Cure: Taking Our Leave | Psychology Today". www.psychologytoday.com. Retrieved October 18, 2024.
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  55. ^ Abrahams, Marc (April 20, 2005). "A simple choice". The Guardian. Guardian News and Media Limited. Archived from the original on September 18, 2014. Retrieved October 24, 2014.
  56. ^ Caprara, Gian Vittorio; Barbaranelli, Claudio; Zimbardo, Philip (February 6, 1997). "Politicians' uniquely simple personalities". Nature. 385 (6616): 493. Bibcode:1997Natur.385..493C. doi:10.1038/385493a0. S2CID 45115966.
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